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= **Chapter 12: Antebellum Culture and Reform** =

Not enough emphasis has been placed on the terms, so I am presenting the terms without the headings. Limit the amount of information that you post. Keep It Short and Simple. Key facts to memorize. Definitions. Significance. Cause & effect. Information which can be presented in 5 minutes to the class

**Main Ideas:**

 * 1) The development by American intellectuals of a national culture committed to the liberation of the human spirit, as expressed in art, literature, utopian communities, and transcendental philosophy.
 * 2) The effect of this commitment to the liberation of the human spirit in reinforcing the evangelical reform impulse of the period, in movements as diverse as temperance, education, rehabilitation, and women's rights.
 * 3) The emergence of the crusade against slavery as the most powerful element in this reform movement, and the various strategies of such prominent abolitionists as William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass in combating the "peculiar institution."

**Handouts/Homework:**
"Discuss the changing ideals of American womanhood between the American Revolution (1770s) and the outbreak of the Civil War. What factors fostered the emergence of "republican motherhood" and the "cult of domesticity"? Assess the extent to which these ideals influenced the lives of women during the period. In your answer be sure to consider issues of race and class. Use the documents and your knowledge of the time period in constructing your response. (2006 DBQ, AP Workshop Materials, Anchor packet p16)
 * DBQs:**

"Reform movements in the United States sought to expand democratic ideals." Assess the validity of this statement with specific reference ot the years 1825-1850. (2002 DBQ)

Analyze the role of women and minorities in antebellum reform movements. (AP Achiever sample Q p455, advice p460)
 * FRQ:**

Kyle Ward, History in the Making - An absorbing look at how American History Has Changed in the Telling Over the Last 200 Years, The New Press, 2006. ISBN: 987-1-59558-044-3 - Chapter 19: The Mormons
 * Further Reading:**

Courvares, Saxton, Grob, Billias, //Interpretations of American History; Volume One//, Eighth Edition, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009. Chapter 8 – Antebellum Reform: Evolving Causes and Strategies - Mary Hershberger, //Mobilizing Women, Anticipating Abolition: The Struggle against Indian Removal in the 1830s//, 1999. - Lori D. Ginzberg, //“Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash”: Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s//, 1986.

Lacy Ford, //Reconfiguring the Old South: ‘Solving’ the Problem of Slavery, 1787–1838//, Journal of American History, Vol. 95 No. 1, June 2008. Examining the choices that confronted the American South in the era of the cotton revolution, Lacy Ford outlines the tensions that appeared as both the upper and the lower South attempted reconfigurations of slavery after the foreign slave trade ended in 1808. Upper South politicians sought a demographic reconfiguration, or a “whitening” of the region, to reduce the number of slaves living there through both colonization and the sale of slaves to the lower South. Lower South leaders, meanwhile, sought an ideological reconfiguration to make slaveholding consistent with existing republican and emerging humanitarian ideals by transforming slavery into a “domestic” institution legitimated by paternalism. As Ford shows, the divergent efforts at reconfiguration pitted spokesmen of the upper and lower South against each other even as the antagonists displayed a shared and fundamental unwillingness to undermine slaveholding and slaveholders.


 * Romanticism**
 * Order & Control**
 * National Cultural Aspirations**
 * Hudson River School**
 * Cooper and the American Wilderness**
 * Herman Melville**

__**Southern Romanticism**__
 * Main southern writers of the 1830s – Beverly Tucker, William Alexander Caruthers, and John Pendleton Kennedy
 * Many of these writers wrote historical romances or romantic eulogies of the plantation system of the upper south
 * 1840s – literary capital of the South moved to Charleston
 * Charleston was home to the writer, William Gilmore Simms
 * His work expressed a broad nationalism that transcended his regional background
 * By the 1840s he had become a strong defender of the south-in particular, slavery
 * Other writers – Augustus B. Longstreet, Joseph G. Baldwin, Johnson J. Hooper focused on ordinary people and poor whites
 * These southern realists established a tradition of American regional humor

__**Ralph Waldo Emerson**__
 * Ralph Waldo Emerson was a leading transcendentalist
 * This group of intellectuals, had their center in Concord, Massachusetts
 * In 1832 he left his job as a minister and devoted himself entirely to writing and teaching transcendentalists
 * He produced a lot of poetry
 * He is most famous for his essays, “Nature” in 1836, “Self-Reliance” in 1841
 * One of his most famous lectures was “The American Scholar” in 1837
 * Transcendentalists believed that they should rely only on themselves and not on anyone else
 * Transcendentalists and Emerson in particular were very large supporters of nationalism

__**Thoreau and Civil Disobedience**__
 * Another leading transcendentalist was Henry David Thoreau
 * Thoreau went further than Emerson and said individuals should work for self-realization by resisting pressures to conform to society’s expectations and responding instead to their own instincts
 * Thoreau’s most famous book was //Walden// in 1854
 * Thoreau rejected what he considered to be the artificial constraints of society
 * He also rejected what he thought were the artificial constraints the government
 * In 1846, he went to jail rather than pay a toll tax
 * He would not give financial support to a government that supported slavery
 * 1849 – he wrote an essay, “Resistance to Civil Government” and explained his refusal by claiming that the individual’s personal morality had the first claim on his or her actions, and that a government which required violation of that morality had no legitimate authority
 * He was an early practitioner of “civil disobedience” and “passive resistance”

__**Brook Farm**__
 * Although transcendentalism was an individualistic philosophy, it helped spawn the most famous of all nineteenth century experiments in communal living: Brook Farm
 * Boston transcendentalist George Ripley established Brook Farm as an experimental community in West Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1841
 * According to Ripley, individuals would gather to create a new form of social organization, one that would permit every member of the community full opportunity for self-realization
 * All the residents would share equally in the labor but also in the leisure
 * The obvious tension between the ideal of individual freedom and the demands of a communal society took their toll on Brook Farm
 * Individualism gave way to a form of socialism
 * Many people left and when the central building burned down in 1847, the experiment dissolved


 * __New Harmony__**
 * The failure of Brook Farm did not prevent the formation of other experimental communities
 * Some borrowed from the ideas of the French philosopher Charles Fourier, whose ideas of socialist communities organized as cooperative “phalanxes” received wide attention in America
 * Others drew from the ideas of the Scottish industrialist and philanthropist Robert Owen
 * Owen also founded an experimental community in Indiana in 1825 which he named, New Harmony
 * It was supposed to be a village of Cooperation where every resident lived and worked in total equality
 * While this failed, it inspired many others to try their own experiments


 * __Redefined Gender Roles at the__ __Oneida__ __Community__**
 * One of the most enduring utopian communities was the Oneida Community, established in 1848 in upstate New York by John Humphrey Noyes
 * They called themselves, “Oneida perfectionists” and rejected traditional notions of family and marriage
 * All residents were married to al other residents
 * It was not an experiment in unrestrained, “free love”
 * It was a place where the community carefully monitored sexual behavior
 * It was a place where women were to be protected from unwanted childbearing
 * It was a place where children were raised communally, often seeing little of their own parents
 * The Oneidans took special pride in what they considered the liberation of their women from the demands of male “lust” and from traditional bonds of family
 * The Oneida community was one of the first places to redefine the gender roles


 * Shakers**
 * founded by “Mother” Ann Lee in the 1770s
 * established more than 20 communities throughout the Northeast and Northwest in the 1840s
 * name comes from their religious ritual, an ecstatic dance in which members of a congregation “shake” themselves free of sin while performing a loud chant – sounds pretty logical.
 * most distinctive feature of Shakerism was its commitment to complete celibacy – as a result, no one could be born into Shakerism, every Shaker had to choose the faith voluntarily
 * over 6,000 members in the 1840s, more women than men
 * lived in conditions in which contact between men and women was very limited
 * openly endorsed the idea of gender equality – even embraced the idea of a God who was not clearly male or female
 * women in general exercised the most power in Shaker society
 * Mother Lucy Wright took Mother Ann Lee’s place as leader of the movement in the 1840s
 * Shakers tried to create a society protected from the chaos and disorder of American life, focused on social discipline, tried to form a utopian society


 * Joseph Smith**
 * Smith was a young, energetic, but economically unsuccessful man
 * in 1830, he published the Book of Mormon, names for the ancient profit who he claimed had written it – said it was a translation of a set of golden tablets he had found in the hills of New York, revealed to him by an angel of God (a likely story)
 * the book told the story of an ancient civilization in America, peopled by one of the lost tribes of Israel who came to the New World centuries before Columbus; its members waited patiently for the Messiah, and they were rewarded when Jesus made a little trip to America after his resurrection; after that, generations strayed from the path of righteousness that Jesus had laid out for them, and their civilization collapsed, so God punished them by giving them a killer tan; these darkened people, Smith said, were the descendants of the Native Americans, although modern tribes had no memory of their origins
 * Smith believed that while this ancient Hebrew kingdom in America had vanished, it could serve as a model for a new holy community in the US
 * in 1831, Smith gathered a small group of believers and for over 20 years, he searched for a sanctuary for his new community of “saints”
 * tried many times to establish their community, but met persecution because of their radical religious doctrines – which included polygamy, rigid social organization, and an intense secrecy among the group, which created wild rumors and suspicion among other groups
 * in the early 1840s, the Mormons settled in the economically successful community of Nauvoo, Illinois, but in 1844, Smith was arrested, charged with treason for supposedly conspiring against the gov’t to win foreign support for a new Mormon colony in the Southwest, and imprisoned in Carthage, IL
 * And it’s all Joseph Smith’s fault that now we have to listen to Mitt Romney’s 349864517693480952134 commercials.


 * Establishment of** **Salt Lake City**
 * while Smith was in prison, an angry mob attacked the jail, forced Smith from his cell, and shot and killed him
 * the Mormons thought this would be a good time to leave Nauvoo, and under Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, the group of 12,000 people traveled together and established a new community in Utah, the present Salt Lake City (where Mitt Romney single-handedly and heroically ran the Olympics, thus demonstrating his undeniable capabilities of running the entire country, in case you by some miracle haven’t seen one of his commercials)
 * in Salt Lake City, the Mormons were finally able to create a permanent settlement
 * did not believe in individual liberty – created a highly organized, centrally directed, almost militarized structure – a lot of emphasis on the family, intense interest in genealogy which continues even today


 * New Reform Movements**
 * new organizations worked on behalf of a wide range of goals: temperance, education, peace, caring for the poor and the mentally ill, the treatment of criminals, the rights of women, etc.
 * two distinct sources of reform movements at this time: those who embraced Unitarianism, Universalism, and European romanticism, and Protestant revivalism


 * Revivalism in the Burned-Over District**
 * Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelical Presbyterian minister, became the most influential revival leader of the 1820s and 1830s
 * preached that each person contained within himself or herself the capacity to experience spiritual rebirth and achieve salvation – said people didn’t need to rely on a miracle from God, could be created from individual effort
 * Finney had great success in upstate NY, launching revivals in towns along the Erie Canal – a region so prone to religious awakenings that is was known as the “burned-over district”
 * the region was experiencing a major economic transformation as a result of the construction of the canal, a major reason that the new revivalism was so powerful


 * Finney's Doctrine of Personal Regeneration**
 * those who felt threatened by the new changes were drawn to Finney’s doctrine of personal regeneration
 * Finney stages a series of emotionally wrenching religious meetings in Rochester, NY, where he had the greatest success
 * focused his efforts on women because they found his liberating message of revivalism appealing and also because they provided Finney with access to their male relatives
 * gained a large group of supporters, and revivalism became a mandate for the reform and control of the larger society, a call for a crusade against personal immorality

· The crusade against drunkenness was enhanced by the addition of the Evangelical Protestantism · Alcoholism was the root for crime and disorder · Placed a burden on wives because husbands spent money on alcohol and often abused women and children · Women were active in the temperance movement because it affected them · Alcoholism was more dangerous in antebellum America than it has been in the 20th century. · Alcohol was growing because of the increase in the production of grain in the West · Drinking was a pastime in small towns and a way to escape loneliness for some · The average male in the 1830s drank nearly three times as much alcohol as the average person does today · New reformers gave a boost of energy · In 1826 the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance emerged as a coordinating agency among various groups · In 1840 six alcoholics organized the Washington Temperance Society and drew large crowds-people confessed past sins · More than a million people signed a pledge to give up hard liquor
 * //American Society for the Promotion of Temperance//**

//**Cultural Divisions over Alcohol**// · As the movement gained strength it divided in purpose · Some advocated temperance in not only liquor but beer and wine · Some demanded state legislation to restrict sale · Most motives similar-promote self-improvement and discipline in society · Prohibition laws pitted established Protestants against new Catholic immigrants · Catholics believed drinking was an important part of life · Arrival of immigrants disturbed residents and alcohol curbed the disorder

· Phrenology was one of the strangest new science beliefs · First appeared in Germany and spread through the United States in the 1830s · Orson and Lorenzo Fowler with the //Phrenology Almanac// helped spread idea · Argued that the shape of one’s individual skull was an indicator of his or her character and intelligence · Phrenologists made bumps and indications to calculate size of different parts of the brain · Seemed to end arbitrary process of how people matched talents to occupations
 * //Phrenology//**
 * ·** Now believed to have no scientific basis.

· No one knew how diseases were transmitted · In 1843 Boston essayist, poet, and physician Oliver Wendell Holmes published his findings from a study on puerperal fever · Concluded that diseases could be transmitted from one person to another · Discovery of contagion had much criticism but was later found to be a clinical success of the Hungarian Ignaz Semmelweis physician.
 * //Discovery of Contagian//**
 * ·** It was hard for doctors to treat disease because there were no scientific methods or experimental practice in medicine

· Universal public education was one of the largest reform movements of the mid nineteenth century · In 1830 no state had a system · Reflects desire to expose students to stable social values · Horace Mann, 1st secretary of Mass Board of Education · Believed education was the only way to protect democracy · Mann reorganized Mass school system, lengthened academic year, doubled teachers’ salaries and enriched the curriculum
 * //Horace Mann's Reforms//**

· Built new schools, created teachers’ colleges, and offered new groups of students access to school · Henry Barnard helped produce system in Conn and RI · PA passed a law in 1835 for state funds for universal education · William Seward of NY extended public support throughout the state · By the 1850s the principal tax-supported elementary schools accepted in all states
 * //Rapid Growth of Public Education//**
 * ·** Other states expanded like Mass


 * Achievements of Educational Reform**
 * 94% literacy rate in the North, 83% in the South by civil war
 * Education was a touchy subject, many different opinions on how students should be taught
 * Concord-Bronson Alcott opened a school which emphasized self-realization, learn from inner wisdom, create their own valuesà teach themselves
 * Used to impress social values upon students
 * Horace Mann- expand potential for individual opportunity and extend democracy
 * The Benevolent Empire**
 * Institutions to help handicapped to fulfill potential
 * Boston- Perkins School for the Blind
 * Schools opened during a period of romanticism, and where the goodness of man was exemplified
 * The Asylum Movement**
 * Sanctuary for criminals who were mentally ill
 * Prisons included all degrees of criminals, were over crowded, and quite unhealthy
 * Auburn 1821- first penitentiary- state funded
 * Dorothea Dix advocated for proper treatment methods of the criminals
 * Imprisonment ended for small misdemeanor crimes
 * Prison Reform**
 * Point of asylum was to rehabilitate the inmates
 * New punishments involved solitary confinement to, “think about what they’ve done…”
 * Overcrowding caused a relapse in prison reform, and imprisonment became more like a permanent punishment, not a rehabilitation and way to rid the person of the ways that had led them astray
 * Orphanages mirrored the idea and became a place with access to education
 * Goal was to prevent children at risk of becoming involved with crime and to make them into successful citizens
 * Women also found a home in institutions built on the idea of prison reform-à prevent prostitution
 * Houses for poor also emerged
 * The Indian Reservation**
 * 1850’s idea to move Indians to a location safe from whites where they could assimilate with the whites, rather than relocation
 * still benefited white purposes more than Indians
 * followed prison modelà regenerating the Indian race
 * Reform Movements and the Rise of Feminism**
 * women were particularly active on behalf of slavery
 * restricted by standards set by women, and their expected role in the house
 * more restrictions imposed the more socially active they became
 * The Grimke sisters defied the men who did not agree with their outspokenness about the issue of slavery
 * Others who spoke out against acceptable: Catharine Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Dorothea Dix
 * Seneca Falls**
 * 1840- Women tried to attend anti slavery convention but were turned away
 * Mott, Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony outlined connections between slavery and the oppression of women
 * 1848- Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls
 * produced a Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions
 * biggest demand was the right to vote
 * Rejected idea that men and women should be separated


 * Limited Progress for Women**
 * American Colonization Society**
 * Garrison and the Liberator**
 * American Antislavery Society**
 * Free Blacks' Commitment to Abolition**
 * Frederick Douglass**

13th amendment abolishes slavery- 1865 Emancipation in the United States was part of a worldwide antislavery movement that began in the late 18th and early 19th century. Enlightenment ideals= introduction of human rights and individual liberty to the concept of civilization The ideas conflicted with the concept of slavery and let to many opponents of slavery. Belief that all human beings had an equal claim to liberty= views became a basis for an escalating series of antislavery movements. Slavery opponents first targeted slave trade which had grown up in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. Aftermath of the revolutions in America, France and Haiti= antislavery gains momentum. central figure= English reformer- William Wilberforce- spent years attacking Britain's connection with the slave trade. Argued against it on moral and religious grounds. continuation would mean more slave revolts. 1807- persuaded parliament to pass a law ending the slave trade for the entire British empire. Which then persuaded other nations to follow the set example. U.S.-1808 France-1814 Holland-1817 Spain-1845 sale of slaves steadily declined but slavery continued. (U.S. example- Slave families). Some parts of South America= slavery comes to an end with the overthrow of Spanish rule- 1820s Simon Bolivar- great leader for Latin American independence who helped free the slaves who joined his armies and insisted on constitutional prohibitions on slavery. Brazil= last nation in the Americas to end slavery in 1888. Turn against slavery after slaves valiant participation in Brazil's war with Paraguay Frederick Douglass- American world figure for the abolition of slavery who was sought after in England.
 * The Abolition of Slavery**
 * Violent Reprisals**
 * Even in north- abolitionists= small, dissenting minority.
 * critics saw the abolitionist crusade as a dangerous and frightening threat to the existing social structure.
 * some whites warn that it would start a destructive war between sections.- disorienting social changes.
 * 1830s escalation of violence= Prudence Crandall attempts to all several African American girls into her privates school= filth down her well and forced school closing, abolitionist headquarters "Temple of liberty" burned to the ground (1834) Garrison almost hung but saved by authorities throwing him in jail (1835), Elijah Lovejoy's presses smashed 3 times by angry mobs- killed and building set fire to (1837).
 * Abolitionists= strong willed, passionate crusaders - enormous courage . Also, wild-eyed fanatics bent on a social revolution.
 * Moderates versus Extremists**
 * mid 1830s= violence of anti-abolitionists means abolitionist members looking for a moderate approach.
 * William Lloyd Garrison- growing radicalism shocks even his allies and leads to more abolitionists with moderate views. government= "Covenant with death and an agreement with hell." nations churches= bulwarks of slavery.1843- call for Nothern disunion form South, no seperation between jail and asylums and women= full equality.
 * 1840 on= many different voices on slavery instead of one consistent voice. Garrisons= influential. Also, others= abolition accomplished through long, peaceful struggle.
 * Didn't work so well. Many joined Garrisons with Underground Railroad.
 * The Amistad Case**
 * Legal battle over Spanish slave vessel.
 * Africans destined for slavery in Cuba seized the vessel. in 1839 and attempt to return to Africa.
 * Slavery had been illegal since 1808- Happened in 1839. case reached supreme court and the court declared the Africans free in 1841. Antislavery groups funded their passage back to Africa.
 * Anti-slavery societies petitioned congress to abolish slavery in places where the federal government had no jurisdiction.
 * Few members of the movement believed that Congress could constitutionally interfere with a domestic institution such as slavery within the individual states themselves.
 * Freesoilers- Garrison= "whitemanism" - attracted huge support and a majority of the white population in the north. Anti-slavery and abolitionism were not always the same thing. Freesoilers wanted to keep blacks out of the west.
 * frustrations of political abolitionism= violence such as the John Brown incident.
 * Theodor Dwight Weld and Angelina Grimkes' American Slavery as it is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (1839)
 * Harriet Beecher Stowe**
 * Uncle Tom’s Cabin- (1851-1852) appeared as abolitionist propaganda but was a complete work of fiction.- appeared in anti slavery weeklys
 * 1852- published as a book and sold more than 300,000 copies within the year of its publication.
 * Stowe combined the emotional conventions of the sentimental novel with the political ideas of the abolition movement.
 * Slavery in a popular literary form= wider audience.
 * Portrayal of good, kindly blacks facing victimization by a cruel system and the overseer Simon Legree ( described as a northerner to keep the book from seeming too much of an attack on southern whites)
 * Heartrending death of Eva and escape of Eliza.
 * Abolitionism's Enduring Influence**
 * Only a relatively small number of people accepted the abolitionist movement before the Civil War.
 * Didn’t accept abolition as a single stroke.
 * Crusade Garison had launched and the thousands of committed men and women kept alive for three decades= constant reminder of how deeply the institution of slavery was dividing America.

Further Reading: "Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) towers over the American Renaissance but does not, though he should, reign as philospher-king of American white-race theory... Emerson wrote the earliest full-length statement of the ideology later termed "Anglo-Saxonist." Emerson's Anglo-Saxonist literature includes "Permanent Traits of the English National Genius" (1835), "The Genius and National Character of the Anglo-Saxon Race" (1843), "Traits and Genius of teh Anglo-Saxon Race" (1852-3), and "The Anglo-American (1852-3)
 * Nell Irvin Painter - //Ralph Waldo Emerson's Saxons//, JAH Vol.95 No. 4 - March 2009"** //painter@princeton.edu//

"In an influental treatise and oft-repeated lectures, he protrayed //the American// as //Saxon//, the Saxon as manly man, and separated the geneology of the American Saxon from that of the Celt. Deftly and subtly, Emerson elevated the Saxons and disappeared teh Celts from the identity of the American. Emerson makes it crystal clear that "Saon" (or, later, "Anglo-Saxon") is //not// a synonym for "white," even though the historiographical literature often seems to equate them."

Thomas Jefferson's Saxons: "For Thomas Jefferson, Saxon descent explained the political dfifferences between the patriots of the newly formed United States of America and the ruling class of Great Britain. He contrasted what he saw as the Saxon origins of positive English institutions to the Norman origin of the Tories. Laying out American claims in July 1774, Jefferson called English people "our ancestors" and the creators of the Magna Carta "our Saxon ancestors." Though the Norman Conquest dates from 106 and the Magna Carta from 1215, Jefferson maintained that "our ancestors'" system of rights was already in place when "Norman lawyers" connived to saddle the Saxons with unfair burdens. In later writings Jefferon continued to associate the Saxons with the Whigs and the Normans with the Tories, as though liberal and reactionary parties had existed from time immemorial, perpetuating themselves immutably, one generation after the other..." "

"For Emerson and his educated followers, to be America was to be Saxon. We recognize several exclusions from that identity - ... native Indian, black, and Asian Americans. Also excluded in the nineteenth centry were the Irish. After Emerson died in 1882, however, successive waves of European immigrants at the turn of the century pushed Irish Americans into the American fold as northwestern European //Nordics//. But for Emerson in the 1850s, Saxon not only meant Ameircan, it meant non-Celt. With Emerson as the embodiment of the American Renaissance, his fascination with Saxons - at the expense of all others, including Celts - remains embedded almost unnoticed in fundamental notions of what it is to be an American, to belong within the notion of the American. For Emmerson, among the kinds of white people - he would have thought in terms of white races - Saxons were the best. Emerson placed distinctions on race and geneology at the foundation of Saxon-English-American temperament, leaving otu many tohers we today consider white."

Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting
 * * Romanticism || * Movement which __contrasted traditional Protestant assumptions__ of original sin; __reformers argued that individuals should unleash their inner spirit__ ||
 * //The Romantic Impulse//**
 * //National Cultural Aspirations//
 * //National Cultural Aspirations//
 * //Hudson River// //School// || * American art, books, plays, were unpopular abroad
 * America started working to create an artistic world that expressed the nation’s values
 * The first great school of American Painters, in NY
 * Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Asher Durand, etc


 * Created Wisdom/spiritual fulfillment; created sense that America was a nation of greater promise ||
 * Literature and the Quest for Liberation**
 * Literature and the Quest for Liberation**


 * //Cooper and the American Wilderness//


 * //Herman Melville// || * British author, __Sir Walter Scott__ was popular
 * American written books were usually by and for women, not considered serious literature
 * __Washington Irving__ and __James Fenimore Cooper__ helped advance American literature
 * Cooper wrote about man’s relationship with nature/challenges of America’s westward expansion
 * __Walt Whitman__ wrote poems celebrating democracy, liberation of the individual, and the yearning for emotional etc
 * Author of __Moby Dick__; tragedy of pride and revenge; suggested the search for personal fulfillment and triumph could liberate and also destroy ||
 * Literature in the Antebellum South**
 * //Southern Romanticism// || * Southern writers had a different idea of how American society should be
 * Beverly Tucker, William Alexander Caruthers, John Pendelton Kennedy
 * Wrote of romances or of the plantation system; Often the authors became defensive of slavery
 * Glorified backwoods rural areas, sometimes painfully realistic
 * __Mark Twain__ ||
 * The Transcendentalists**
 * The Transcendentalists**
 * The Transcendentalists**


 * //Ralph Waldo Emerson//


 * //Thoreau and Civil Disobedience// || * New England authors and philosophers
 * __Each individual should strive to transcend the limits of intellect and allow emotions of the soul to create an original relation to the Universe__
 * Leader of transcendentalists who left the church to devote himself to writing/teaching transcendentalism
 * __Henry David Thoreau__ rejected artificial constrains of society and went to jail for not paying a poll tax
 * He wrote that the government had no authority over people’s morality ||
 * The Defense of Nature** || * Thoreau feared that humans separated from nature would lose a substantial part of their humanity ||
 * Visions of Utopia**
 * //Brook Farm// ||
 * Visions of Utopia**
 * //Brook Farm// ||


 * Experimental communal living community established by __George Ripley__
 * All the residents shared equal labor and leisure (__socialism?)__
 * __Nathaniel Hawthorne__ expressed his disillusionment of the experiment with the satire __“Blithedale Romance”__ ||
 * Redefining Gender Roles**
 * Redefining Gender Roles**


 * //In the Oneida Community//


 * //Shakers// || * __Margaret Fuller__ questioned the gender roles and became an __intellectual woman leader__
 * Oneida “perfectionists” rejected family and marriage, all residents were married to all other residents
 * Felt that they liberated women from demands of male lust and traditional family bonds
 * Complete celibacy, meaning no one was born into Shakerism, but chose faith voluntarily ||
 * The Mormons**
 * //Joseph Smith//
 * //Joseph Smith//


 * //Est. of Salt Lake City// ||


 * Found golden tablets in the woods and wrote the __Book of Mormon__
 * Mormons had a hard time settling anywhere without being run out, eventually they migrated to Utah to create a permanent settlement
 * Mormons created a highly organized, centrally directed, militarized social structure, emphasis on the family ||
 * //Remaking Society//**
 * //New Reform Movements// || * Temperance, education, peace, the care of the poor/handicapped, treatment of criminals, women’s rights, etc ||
 * Revivalism, Morality, and Order**
 * //Revivalism in the Burned-Over District//
 * //Finney’s Doctrine of Personal Regeneration// || * __Americans embraced doctrines of Unitarianism and Universalism and European Romanticism__
 * __Charles Grandison Finney__, an evangelistic Presbyterian minister helped launch passionate revivals in the “burned over district”
 * Appealed to those who felt threatened by change
 * Successful in mobilizing women, developed a large following ||
 * Temperance Crusade**
 * Successful in mobilizing women, developed a large following ||
 * Temperance Crusade**
 * Temperance Crusade**


 * //American Society for the Promotion of Temperance//
 * //Cultural Divisions over Alcohol// || * Women claimed alcohol was a burden to wives, who were financially and physically abused
 * The average man in the 1830s drank 3x as much alcohol as the average person today does
 * Emerged in 1826, preached abstinence in liquor and beer and wine


 * Protestants against Catholics who liked to drink ||
 * Health Fads and Phrenology**
 * Health Fads and Phrenology**


 * //Phrenology// || * Interest in individual/social perfection led to interest in new health theories
 * Cholera, an intestinal infection, broke out in the 1830s
 * Hydrotherapy became popular, as did dietary theories
 * First appeared in Germany, claimed that the shape of an individual’s skull was an important indicator of his/her intelligence and character ||
 * Medical Science**
 * Medical Science**


 * //Discovery of Contagion// || * Tested on human subjects, no real information about diseases
 * Vaccination against small-pox by __Edward Jenner__
 * __Oliver Wendell Holmes__ found that diseases could be transmitted from person to person
 * Once people started to disinfect (aka wash their hands) infections virtually disappeared ||
 * Reforming Education**
 * //Horace Mann’s Reforms//
 * //Horace Mann’s Reforms//


 * //Rapid Growth of Public Education//


 * //Achievement of Educational Reform// || * Secretary of Mass Board of Education in 1837,
 * He recognized Mass school system, lengthened the academic year, doubled teachers’ salaries, enriched curriculum, and introduced new methods of professional trainings for teachers
 * Other states followed by building new schools and producing new educational systems, and school funding
 * Impressive reforms, one of the highest literacy rates in the world ||
 * Rehabilitation**
 * //The Asylum Movement//
 * //The Asylum Movement//


 * //Prison Reform// ||


 * Asylums were created for criminals and mentally ill people
 * __Dorothea Dix__ began a national movement for new methods of treating them
 * Criminals were supposed to meditate for their wrongdoings ||
 * Indian Reservation** || * Whites wanted to protect and preserve the Indians from the whites so they may be able to assimilate
 * Reservations became a reform system ||
 * Rise of Feminism**
 * Rise of Feminism**
 * Rise of Feminism**


 * //Reform Movements and the Rise of Feminism//


 * //Seneca Falls//


 * //Limited Progress for Women// || * Women played an important role in the reform movements
 * __Sarah and Angelina Grimke__ claimed //“Men and women were CREATED EQUAL”//
 * __Susan B. Anthony__ and others organized a convention at Seneca Falls to discuss women’s rights, and created a “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions”
 * Women expressed their sentiments in their choice of fashion, the Bloomer became a popular outfit ||
 * //Crusade Against Slavery//** || * 1830s: began to overshadow all other efforts of social reform ||
 * Early Opposition to Slavery**
 * //American Colonization Society// ||
 * Early Opposition to Slavery**
 * //American Colonization Society// ||


 * Worked to challenge slavery without challenging property rights
 * Proposed gradual freeing of slaves with masters receiving compensation
 * It was partially successful, but eventually failed ||
 * Garrison and Abolitionism**
 * Garrison and Abolitionism**


 * //American Antislavery Society// || * __William Lloyd Garrison__ believed that opponents of slavery should view the institution form the black man’s point of view, not the white slave-owner’s
 * Garrison attracted large followers and founded the New England Antislavery Society ||
 * Black Abolitionists**
 * Black Abolitionists**


 * //Free Blacks’ Commitment to Abolition//
 * //Frederick Douglas// || * Free blacks in the north often lived in worse condition than the enslaved blacks of the south
 * Northern Free Blacks were fiercely proud of their freedom


 * Black born slave who escaped and became an outspoken leader of antislavery
 * Demanded not only freedom but full social and economic equality for blacks ||
 * Anti-Abolitionism**
 * Anti-Abolitionism**


 * //Violent Reprisals// || * Anti-abolitionists existed in the South and North
 * __Prudence Crandall__ attempted to admit several Blacks into her private school and was arrested and forced to close her school down
 * Bloody race riots occurred often and mobs seized Garrison, threatening to hang him
 * Mobs also killed __Elijah Lovejoy__, an editor of an abolitionist newspaper ||
 * Abolitionism Divided**
 * //Moderates vs Extremists//
 * //Amistad Case//
 * //Amistad Case//


 * //Harriet Beecher Stowe// ||


 * William Lloyd Garrison became extremely radical, and brought the government into it
 * Spanish slave vessel, seized by the Africans destined for slavery, were declared free by supreme court
 * Author of __Uncle Tom’s Cabin__, combined emotional conventions of sentimental novel with political ideas of abolition ||